Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151:979-986
Copyright © 1994 by American Psychiatric Association

REGULAR ARTICLES

The prevalence and distribution of major depression in a national community sample: the National Comorbidity Survey

DG Blazer, RC Kessler, KA McGonagle and MS Swartz
Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710.

OBJECTIVE: Major depression is a frequent and disabling psychiatric disorder in the United States. This report examines the prevalence and risk factor profile of both pure and comorbid major depression according to data from the National Comorbidity Survey. METHOD: To estimate the prevalence of psychiatric comorbidity in the United States, a national sample of 8,098 persons 15-54 years of age from the 48 conterminous states was surveyed with a modified version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Results: From the survey data the prevalence of current (30-day) major depression was estimated to be 4.9%, with a relatively higher prevalence in females, young adults, and persons with less than a college education. The prevalence estimate for lifetime major depression was 17.1%, with a similar demographic distribution. Both 30-day and lifetime prevalence estimates were higher than estimates from the earlier Epidemiologic Catchment Area study. When pure major depression was compared with major depression co-occurring with other psychiatric disorders, the risk factor profiles exhibited clear differences. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest a greater burden of major depression in community- dwelling persons than has been estimated from previous community samples. The risk factor profile showed significant differences between persons with pure and combined major depression.

This article has been cited by other articles:

				Z. Simsek, D. Ak, A. Altindag, and M. Gunes Prevalence and predictors of mental disorders among women in Sanliurfa, Southeastern Turkey J. Public Health Med., December 1, 2008; 30(4): 487 - 493. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. G. Perri, M. C. Limacher, P. E. Durning, D. M. Janicke, L. D. Lutes, L. B. Bobroff, M. S. Dale, M. J. Daniels, T. A. Radcliff, and A. D. Martin Extended-Care Programs for Weight Management in Rural Communities: The Treatment of Obesity in Underserved Rural Settings (TOURS) Randomized Trial Arch Intern Med, November 24, 2008; 168(21): 2347 - 2354. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				K. N. Mossakowski Dissecting the Influence of Race, Ethnicity, and Socioeconomic Status on Mental Health in Young Adulthood Research on Aging, November 1, 2008; 30(6): 649 - 671. [Abstract] [PDF]

				K. Abe, K. J. Mertz, K. E. Powell, and R. L. Hanzlick Characteristics of Black and White Suicide Decedents in Fulton County, Georgia, 1988-2002 Am J Public Health, September 1, 2008; 98(Supplement_1): S132 - S136. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				T Fujiwara and I Kawachi A prospective study of individual-level social capital and major depression in the United States J Epidemiol Community Health, July 1, 2008; 62(7): 627 - 633. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. L. Grace, Y. W. Leung, and D. E. Stewart A Prospective Examination of Antidepressant Use and Its Correlates in Patients With Acute Coronary Syndrome Psychosomatics, May 1, 2008; 49(3): 199 - 207. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. King, I. Nazareth, G. Levy, C. Walker, R. Morris, S. Weich, J. A. Bellon-Saameno, B. Moreno, I. Svab, D. Rotar, et al. Prevalence of common mental disorders in general practice attendees across Europe The British Journal of Psychiatry, May 1, 2008; 192(5): 362 - 367. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. C. Carle, R. E. Millsap, and D. A. Cole Measurement Bias Across Gender on the Children's Depression Inventory: Evidence for Invariance From Two Latent Variable Models Educational and Psychological Measurement, April 1, 2008; 68(2): 281 - 303. [Abstract] [PDF]

				L. S. Kinder, K. A. Bradley, W. J. Katon, E. Ludman, M. B. McDonell, and C. L. Bryson Depression, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Mortality Psychosom Med, January 1, 2008; 70(1): 20 - 26. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. D. Cohen, L. Norris, K. Acquaviva, R. A. Peterson, and P. L. Kimmel Screening, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Depression in Patients with End-Stage Renal Disease Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., November 1, 2007; 2(6): 1332 - 1342. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				R. Singh, J. Hunter, and A. Philip The rapid resolution of depression and anxiety symptoms after lower limb amputation Clinical Rehabilitation, August 1, 2007; 21(8): 754 - 759. [Abstract] [PDF]

				J. Keller, A. F. Schatzberg, and M. Maj Current Issues in the Classification of Psychotic Major Depression Schizophr Bull, July 1, 2007; 33(4): 877 - 885. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				R. Goldberg and L. B. Andrew Lincoln's Melancholy: How Depression Challenged a President and Fueled His Greatness JAMA, May 9, 2007; 297(18): 2033 - 2034. [Full Text] [PDF]

				D. R. Williams, H. M. Gonzalez, H. Neighbors, R. Nesse, J. M. Abelson, J. Sweetman, and J. S. Jackson Prevalence and Distribution of Major Depressive Disorder in African Americans, Caribbean Blacks, and Non-Hispanic Whites: Results From the National Survey of American Life Arch Gen Psychiatry, March 1, 2007; 64(3): 305 - 315. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				D. Sit, A. J. Rothschild, M. D. Creinin, B. H. Hanusa, and K. L. Wisner Psychiatric outcomes following medical and surgical abortion Hum. Reprod., March 1, 2007; 22(3): 878 - 884. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. Bronte-Tinkew, K. A. Moore, G. Matthews, and J. Carrano Symptoms of Major Depression in a Sample of Fathers of Infants: Sociodemographic Correlates and Links to Father Involvement Journal of Family Issues, January 1, 2007; 28(1): 61 - 99. [Abstract] [PDF]

				L. M. Hines, P. L. Hoffman, S. Bhave, L. Saba, A. Kaiser, L. Snell, I. Goncharov, L. LeGault, M. Dongier, B. Grant, et al. A Sex-Specific Role of Type VII Adenylyl Cyclase in Depression J. Neurosci., November 29, 2006; 26(48): 12609 - 12619. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				K. Abe, K. J. Mertz, K. E. Powell, and R. L. Hanzlick Characteristics of Black and White Suicide Decedents in Fulton County, Georgia, 1988-2002 Am J Public Health, October 1, 2006; 96(10): 1794 - 1798. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				R. J. Crichlow, P. L. Andres, S. M. Morrison, S. M. Haley, and M. S. Vrahas Depression in Orthopaedic Trauma Patients. Prevalence and Severity J. Bone Joint Surg. Am., September 1, 2006; 88(9): 1927 - 1933. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. Silverstein, M. Augustyn, H. Cabral, and B. Zuckerman Maternal Depression and Violence Exposure: Double Jeopardy for Child School Functioning Pediatrics, September 1, 2006; 118(3): e792 - e800. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. Lucae, D. Salyakina, N. Barden, M. Harvey, B. Gagne, M. Labbe, E. B. Binder, M. Uhr, M. Paez-Pereda, I. Sillaber, et al. P2RX7, a gene coding for a purinergic ligand-gated ion channel, is associated with major depressive disorder Hum. Mol. Genet., August 15, 2006; 15(16): 2438 - 2445. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. F. Paulson, S. Dauber, and J. A. Leiferman Individual and Combined Effects of Postpartum Depression in Mothers and Fathers on Parenting Behavior Pediatrics, August 1, 2006; 118(2): 659 - 668. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				D. N. Juurlink, M. M. Mamdani, A. Kopp, and D. A. Redelmeier The Risk of Suicide With Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors in the Elderly Am J Psychiatry, May 1, 2006; 163(5): 813 - 821. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. W Rich-Edwards, K. Kleinman, A. Abrams, B. L Harlow, T. J McLaughlin, H. Joffe, and M. W Gillman Sociodemographic predictors of antenatal and postpartum depressive symptoms among women in a medical group practice. J Epidemiol Community Health, March 1, 2006; 60(3): 221 - 227. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. I. Hudson, J. K. Lalonde, J. M. Berry, L. J. Pindyck, C. M. Bulik, S. J. Crow, S. L. McElroy, N. M. Laird, M. T. Tsuang, B. T. Walsh, et al. Binge-eating disorder as a distinct familial phenotype in obese individuals. Arch Gen Psychiatry, March 1, 2006; 63(3): 313 - 319. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				C. D. Chambers, S. Hernandez-Diaz, L. J. Van Marter, M. M. Werler, C. Louik, K. L. Jones, and A. A. Mitchell Selective Serotonin-Reuptake Inhibitors and Risk of Persistent Pulmonary Hypertension of the Newborn N. Engl. J. Med., February 9, 2006; 354(6): 579 - 587. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. Cordero and B. Kurz Acculturation and the Mental Health of Latina Women in the Women, Infant, and Children Program Affilia, February 1, 2006; 21(1): 46 - 58. [Abstract] [PDF]

				G. Andrews, R. Poulton, and I. Skoog Lifetime risk of depression: restricted to a minority or waiting for most? The British Journal of Psychiatry, December 1, 2005; 187(6): 495 - 496. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				B. Kurz, B. Malcolm, and D. Cournoyer In the Shadow of Race: Immigrant Status and Mental Health Affilia, November 1, 2005; 20(4): 434 - 447. [Abstract] [PDF]

				D. G. Cruess, S. D. Douglas, J. M. Petitto, T. T. Have, D. Gettes, B. Dube, M. Cary, and D. L. Evans Association of Resolution of Major Depression With Increased Natural Killer Cell Activity Among HIV-Seropositive Women Am J Psychiatry, November 1, 2005; 162(11): 2125 - 2130. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. Galea, J. Ahern, S. Rudenstine, Z. Wallace, and D. Vlahov Urban built environment and depression: a multilevel analysis J Epidemiol Community Health, October 1, 2005; 59(10): 822 - 827. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. Rundberg, J. Lidfeldt, C. Nerbrand, G. Samsioe, A. Romelsjo, and A. Ojehagen Few middle-aged women with severe mental symptoms use psychotropic drugs: The Women's Health in Lund Area (WHILA) Study Scand J Public Health, October 1, 2005; 33(5): 384 - 391. [Abstract] [PDF]

				S. A. Ferguson, F. J. Cisneros, B. Gough, J. P. Hanig, and K. J. Berry Chronic Oral Treatment with 13-cis-Retinoic Acid (Isotretinoin) or all-trans-Retinoic Acid Does Not Alter Depression-Like Behaviors in Rats Toxicol. Sci., October 1, 2005; 87(2): 451 - 459. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				D. S. Hasin, R. D. Goodwin, F. S. Stinson, and B. F. Grant Epidemiology of Major Depressive Disorder: Results From the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcoholism and Related Conditions Arch Gen Psychiatry, October 1, 2005; 62(10): 1097 - 1106. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				V. K. Burt, M. M. Wohlreich, C. H. Mallinckrodt, M. J. Detke, J. G. Watkin, and D. E. Stewart Duloxetine for the Treatment of Major Depressive Disorder in Women Ages 40 to 55 Years Psychosomatics, August 1, 2005; 46(4): 345 - 354. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				R. L. Nahin Identifying and pursuing research priorities at the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine FASEB J, August 1, 2005; 19(10): 1209 - 1215. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				G. L. Larkin, C. A. Claassen, J. A. Emond, A. J. Pelletier, and C. A. Camargo Trends in U.S. Emergency Department Visits for Mental Health Conditions, 1992 to 2001 Psychiatr Serv, June 1, 2005; 56(6): 671 - 677. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. A. Riolo, T. A. Nguyen, J. F. Greden, and C. A. King Prevalence of Depression by Race/Ethnicity: Findings From the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III Am J Public Health, June 1, 2005; 95(6): 998 - 1000. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				H. S. Levin, S. R. McCauley, C. P. Josic, C. Boake, S. A. Brown, H. S. Goodman, S. G. Merritt, and S. I. Brundage Predicting Depression Following Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Arch Gen Psychiatry, May 1, 2005; 62(5): 523 - 528. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. Weich Absence of spatial variation in rates of the common mental disorders J Epidemiol Community Health, April 1, 2005; 59(4): 254 - 257. [Full Text] [PDF]

				E. M. Bertera Mental health in U.S. adults: The role of positive social support and social negativity in personal relationships Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, February 1, 2005; 22(1): 33 - 48. [Abstract] [PDF]

				A. F. Schatzberg Recent Studies of the Biology and Treatment of Depression Focus, January 1, 2005; 3(1): 14 - 24. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. L. Grace, S. E. Abbey, R. Pinto, Z. M. Shnek, J. Irvine, and D. E. Stewart Longitudinal Course of Depressive Symptomatology After a Cardiac Event: Effects of Gender and Cardiac Rehabilitation Psychosom Med, January 1, 2005; 67(1): 52 - 58. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				E. P. Havranek, J. A. Spertus, F. A. Masoudi, P. G. Jones, and J. S. Rumsfeld Predictors of the onset of depressive symptoms in patients with heart failure J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., December 21, 2004; 44(12): 2333 - 2338. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				T. Vos, M. M. Haby, J. J. Barendregt, M. Kruijshaar, J. Corry, and G. Andrews The Burden of Major Depression Avoidable by Longer-term Treatment Strategies Arch Gen Psychiatry, November 1, 2004; 61(11): 1097 - 1103. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. Hack, E. A. Youngstrom, L. Cartar, M. Schluchter, H. G. Taylor, D. Flannery, N. Klein, and E. Borawski Behavioral Outcomes and Evidence of Psychopathology Among Very Low Birth Weight Infants at Age 20 Years Pediatrics, October 1, 2004; 114(4): 932 - 940. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. T. Bromberger, S. Harlow, N. Avis, H. M. Kravitz, and A. Cordal Racial/Ethnic Differences in the Prevalence of Depressive Symptoms Among Middle-Aged Women: The Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN) Am J Public Health, August 1, 2004; 94(8): 1378 - 1385. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. J. Siegel, E. H. Bradley, W. T. Gallo, and S. V. Kasl The Effect of Spousal Mental and Physical Health on Husbands' and Wives' Depressive Symptoms, Among Older Adults: Longitudinal Evidence From the Health and Retirement Survey J Aging Health, June 1, 2004; 16(3): 398 - 425. [Abstract] [PDF]

				R. J. Turner and D. A. Lloyd Stress Burden and the Lifetime Incidence of Psychiatric Disorder in Young Adults: Racial and Ethnic Contrasts Arch Gen Psychiatry, May 1, 2004; 61(5): 481 - 488. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				C M Dickens, L McGowan, C Percival, J Douglas, B Tomenson, L Cotter, A Heagerty, and F H Creed Lack of a close confidant, but not depression, predicts further cardiac events after myocardial infarction Heart, May 1, 2004; 90(5): 518 - 522. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. WEICH and R. ARAYA International and regional variation in the prevalence of common mental disorders: do we need more surveys? The British Journal of Psychiatry, April 1, 2004; 184(4): 289 - 290. [Full Text] [PDF]

				B. J. Zebrack, J. G. Gurney, K. Oeffinger, J. Whitton, R. J. Packer, A. Mertens, N. Turk, R. Castleberry, Z. Dreyer, L. L. Robison, et al. Psychological Outcomes in Long-Term Survivors of Childhood Brain Cancer: A Report From the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study J. Clin. Oncol., March 15, 2004; 22(6): 999 - 1006. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				T. C. Mills, J. Paul, R. Stall, L. Pollack, J. Canchola, Y. J. Chang, J. T. Moskowitz, and J. A. Catania Distress and Depression in Men Who Have Sex With Men: The Urban Men's Health Study Am J Psychiatry, February 1, 2004; 161(2): 278 - 285. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				H. Z. Reinherz, A. D. Paradis, R. M. Giaconia, C. K. Stashwick, and G. Fitzmaurice Childhood and Adolescent Predictors of Major Depression in the Transition to Adulthood Am J Psychiatry, December 1, 2003; 160(12): 2141 - 2147. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]